Entropy based synthetic data generation for augmenting classification system training data

ABSTRACT

A data classification system is trained to classify input data into multiple classes. The system is initially trained by adjusting weights within the system based on a set of training data that includes multiple tuples, each being a training instance and corresponding training label. Two training instances, one from a minority class and one from a majority class, are selected from the set of training data based on entropies for the training instances. A synthetic training instance is generated by combining the two selected training instances and a corresponding training label is generated. A tuple including the synthetic training instance and the synthetic training label is added to the set of training data, resulting in an augmented training data set. One or more such synthetic training instances can be added to the augmented training data set and the system is then re-trained on the augmented training data set.

BACKGROUND

As computing technology has advanced so too have the uses for computingdevices. One such use is data classification systems. Dataclassification systems receive input data and classify the data asbelonging to one or more of multiple classes. Data classificationsystems can be used for a variety of different purposes, such as topersonalize content for users, perform fault detection, perform diseaseclassification, predict customer churn, and so forth.

While data classification systems provide many benefits, they are notwithout their problems. One such problem is that many data sets areimbalanced, which refers to the classification categories not beingapproximately equally represented. For example, a data classificationsystem may select content (e.g., offers or experiences) to provide tousers that the users are predicted to like based on conversions fromhistorical data (which is the data set). The typical conversion rate maybe lower than 1 percent, meaning that on average for every 99 examplesof class 0 (not converted) there is a single example of class 1(converted). Accordingly, the data set is an imbalanced data set. Theclass to which the majority of examples belongs is referred to as themajority class, and the class to which the minority of examples belongsis referred to as the minority class.

Creating a data classification system to properly classify input datawhen the data set is imbalanced is challenging. One approach to creatingsuch a data classification system is to generate synthetic training dataand train the data classification system based in part on the synthetictraining data. These conventional solutions, however, generate synthetictraining data that may not belong to the minority class. If a largeamount of the synthetic training data does not belong to the minorityclass, then the accuracy of the data classification system can beadversely affected because the imbalance in the data set remains.

SUMMARY

To mitigate the drawbacks of conventional solutions for generatingsynthetic training examples, an entropy based data augmentation systemis described. A training data set including multiple training instancesis obtained. Each training instance includes training data and has acorresponding training label. A first subset of the multiple traininginstances is in a minority class and a second subset of the multipletraining instances is in a majority class. A data classification systemis trained by applying the training data set to the data classificationsystem and adjusting weights within the data classification system basedon the training data set. For each of at least two of the multipletraining instances, an entropy of the training instance is determined. Afirst training instance from the first subset and a second traininginstance from the second subset are selected based on the entropies ofthe training instances. A synthetic training instance is generated bycombining the first training instance and the second training instance.A synthetic training label is generated for the synthetic traininginstance based on a training label for the first training instance and atraining label for the second training instance. The training data setis augmented with a tuple including the synthetic training instance andthe synthetic training label, resulting in an augmented training dataset. The data classification system is re-trained by applying theaugmented training data set to the data classification system andadjusting weights within the data classification system based on theaugmented training data set.

This Summary introduces a selection of concepts in a simplified formthat are further described below in the Detailed Description. As such,this Summary is not intended to identify essential features of theclaimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used as an aid indetermining the scope of the claimed subject matter.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The detailed description is described with reference to the accompanyingfigures. Entities represented in the figures may be indicative of one ormore entities and thus reference may be made interchangeably to singleor plural forms of the entities in the discussion.

FIG. 1 is an illustration of a digital medium environment in an exampleimplementation that is operable to employ the entropy based syntheticdata generation for augmenting classification system training datadescribed herein.

FIG. 2 is an illustration of an example architecture of a dataaugmentation system.

FIG. 3 illustrates examples of selecting instances of a class.

FIG. 4 is a flow diagram depicting a procedure in an exampleimplementation of entropy based synthetic data generation for augmentingclassification system training data.

FIG. 5 illustrates an example system including various components of anexample device that can be implemented as any type of computing deviceas described and/or utilized with reference to FIGS. 1-4 to implementaspects of the techniques described herein.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Overview

Techniques for entropy based synthetic data generation for augmentingclassification system training data are discussed herein. A dataclassification system is trained to classify input data into two or moreclasses. The data classification system is initially trained by applyinga training data set to the data classification system and adjustingweights within the data classification system based on the training dataset. The initial training data set includes multiple tuples, each tuplebeing a training instance (also referred to as training data) and acorresponding training label. Synthetic data is generated to augment thetraining data set by generating an entropy value for each of multipletraining instances in the training data set. Two training instances areselected from the training data set based on the entropy values for theselected training instances. One selected training instance is selectedfrom the minority class and the other training instance is selected fromthe majority class. A synthetic training instance is generated bycombining the two selected training instances. A synthetic traininglabel is generated for the synthetic training instance, and a tupleincluding the synthetic training instance and the synthetic traininglabel is added to the initial training data set, resulting in anaugmented training data set. One or more such synthetic traininginstances can be generated and added to the augmented training data setand the data classification system is then re-trained on the augmentedtraining data set.

More specifically, a training system trains a data classification systemby applying a training data set to the classification system andadjusting weights within the classification system based on the trainingdata set. The training data set includes training data in the form oftuples, each tuple including a training instance (the training data tobe classified) and a corresponding training label. The training labelrefers to a probability vector indicating, for each of multiple classes,the probability that the training data is in that class.

At first the training data set includes just an initial training dataset. After initially training the classification system, a dataaugmentation system generates a synthetic training data set, whichtogether with the initial training data forms an augmented training dataset. The training system re-trains the classification system by applyingthe augmented training data set to the classification system andadjusting weights within the classification system based on theaugmented training data set.

After the classification system is initially trained, at least twoinstances (typically all instances or a subset of the training instancesset aside for verification) of the training data set are input to theclassification system. The classification system generates a label foreach such instance and provides the generated labels to the dataaugmentation system. For each label generated by the classificationsystem, the data augmentation system also obtains the correspondingtraining data.

An entropy for a label or corresponding training instance is generated,which refers to the lack of predictability in the corresponding traininginstance. The entropies are used to select training instances from theinitial training data set from which a synthetic training instance willbe generated. In one or more implementations, the classification systemclassifies data into one of two classes. The training data set includesinstances in both the minority class and the majority class. The classto which the majority of instances belongs is referred to as themajority class, and the class to which the minority of instances belongsis referred to as the minority class.

Two training instances from the training data set are sampled, onetraining instance from the minority class and one training instance fromthe majority class, based on the entropies of the training instances. Inone or more implementations, instances are sampled based on a strategyfavoring sampling of instances with lower entropies. In this strategy,the probability of sampling a particular instance from the majorityclass or the minority class is inversely proportional to the entropy ofthe instance. In such implementations both the instance sampled from themajority class and the instance sampled from the minority classtypically have low entropy. The specific instance from a class that issampled can be identified in a variety of different manners.

For example, the training instance having a lowest entropy that has notalready been sampled is sampled. By way of another example, a count ofhow many synthetic training data instances are being generated by thedata augmentation system is obtained. A set of instances from a classequal to that count that have the lowest entropies are selected. Atraining instance from that set of training instances that has notalready been sampled is sampled according to various rules or criteria(e.g., randomly or pseudorandomly).

By way of yet another example, a random or pseudorandom number isgenerated as a probability value. An instance from a class is selectedaccording to various rules or criteria (e.g., randomly orpseudorandomly). If the generated probability value exceeds the entropyof the selected instance, then that training instance is sampled. If thegenerated probability value does not exceed the entropy of the selectedinstance, then instances continue to be selected according to variousrules or criteria (e.g., randomly or pseudorandomly) until an instanceis selected for which the generated probability value does exceed theentropy of the instance.

Additionally or alternatively, training instances can be sampled basedon a strategy favoring sampling of instances with higher entropies. Inthis strategy, the probability of sampling a particular instance fromthe majority class or the minority class is directly proportional to theentropy of the instance. In such implementations both the instancesampled from the majority class and the instance sampled from theminority class typically have high entropy. The specific instance from aclass that is sampled can be identified in a variety of differentmanners.

For example, the training instance having the highest entropy that hasnot already been sampled is sampled. By way of another example, a countof how many synthetic training data instances are being generated by thedata augmentation system is obtained. A set of instances from a classequal to that count that have the highest entropies are selected. Atraining instance from that set of instances that has not already beensampled is sampled according to various rules or criteria (e.g.,randomly or pseudorandomly).

By way of yet another example, a random or pseudorandom number isgenerated as a probability value. An instance from a class is selectedaccording to various rules or criteria (e.g., randomly orpseudorandomly). If the generated probability value does not exceed theentropy of the selected instance, then that training instance issampled. If the generated probability value does exceed the entropy ofthe selected instance, then instances continue to be selected accordingto various rules or criteria (e.g., randomly or pseudorandomly) until aninstance is selected for which the generated probability value does notexceed the entropy of the instance.

Additionally or alternatively, instances are sampled based on a strategyfavoring sampling one instance with higher entropy and one instance withlower entropy. In this strategy, the probability of sampling aparticular instance from one class is directly proportional to theentropy of the instance (and typically has high entropy) and theprobability of sampling a particular instance from the other class isinversely proportional to the entropy of the instance (and typically haslow entropy). Which of the minority class and the majority class has aprobability of sampling a particular instance that is directlyproportional to the entropy of the instance and which has a probabilityof sampling a particular instance that is inversely proportional to theentropy of the instance can be selected according to various rules orcriteria (e.g., randomly or pseudorandomly).

The specific instance sampled from the class that has a probability ofsampling a particular instance that is directly proportional to theentropy of the instance can be identified in a variety of differentmanners, such as any of the manners discussed above regarding thestrategy favoring sampling of instances with higher entropies. Thespecific instance sampled from the class that has a probability ofsampling a particular instance that is inversely proportional to theentropy of the instance can be identified in a variety of differentmanners, such as any of the manners discussed above regarding thestrategy favoring sampling of instances with lower entropies.

A combination ratio indicating how to combine the sampled instances togenerate the synthetic training instance is generated. In one or moreimplementations, the combination ratio is generated by sampling thecombination ratio from a continuous probability distribution. Thecombination ratio can be sampled from various different probabilitydistributions, such as a uniform distribution, a beta distribution, aPoisson distribution, and so forth.

The synthetic training instance is generated by combining the sampledinstances based on the combination ratio. In one or moreimplementations, the synthetic training instance is generated based on alinear transform. Additionally or alternatively, the synthetic traininginstance can be generated in a different manners, such as based on anon-linear transform. The training label for the synthetic traininginstance can be generated using various different techniques, such as aweighted cross entropy technique or a one-hot label cross entropytechnique.

A tuple including the synthetic training instance and the correspondingsynthetic training data label is added to a synthetic training data set.This process is repeated for multiple additional training labels andcorresponding training instances, resulting in multiple synthetictraining instances being generated and multiple tuples being added tothe synthetic training data set. The number of synthetic traininginstances being generated can be determined in a variety of differentmanners. For example, the number of synthetic training instances can bea percentage of the number of labels generated (e.g., 20% or 25%). Byway of another example, the number of synthetic training instances canbe a fixed amount, such as 1,000.

After the synthetic training instance is generated, the training systemre-trains the classification system by applying the training data set tothe classification system and adjusting weights within theclassification system based on the training data set. In re-training theclassification system, the training data set includes both the initialtraining data set and the synthetic training data set, which is alsoreferred to as an augmented training data set. Accordingly, theclassification system is re-trained on both the initial training dataset and the synthetic training data.

This process of generating synthetic training instances and re-trainingthe classification system can be repeated any number of times. In one ormore implementations, this process is repeated a fixed number of times(e.g., 5 or 10 times). This fixed number can be determined empiricallyso as to allow the classification system to be well-trained but notover-trained. Additionally or alternatively, this process is repeateduntil a particular condition is satisfied, such as selected individualweights in the classification system converging.

The techniques discussed herein improve the technical field of dataclassification. Imbalanced data sets present problems for dataclassification systems as discussed above. By generating synthetictraining instances as discussed herein, additional training instancesthat are in the minority class are generated, improving the training ofthe classification system and thus the classification accuracy andefficiency of the classification system. Furthermore, by selectingtraining instances to generate the synthetic training instance from boththe minority class and the majority class based on their entropies, theimbalance in the initial training data set is not carried over to thesynthetic training instances, such as would be done if selectingtraining instances at random.

Furthermore, the entropy based techniques for selecting traininginstances from which the synthetic training instance is to be generatedprovide specific techniques or rules for generating the synthetictraining instance. These specific techniques or rules for generating thesynthetic training instance to train the classification system improvethe operation of the classification system, improving the dataclassification accuracy and efficiency of the classification system.

Term Descriptions

These term descriptions are provided for purposes of example only andare not intended to be construed as limiting on the scope of the claims.

The term “training instance” refers to an instance of data used to traina data classification system.

The term “training data set” refers to a set of training instances andcorresponding training labels used to train a data classificationsystem.

The term “minority class” refers to, for a training data set in whichthe classification categories are not approximately equally represented,the classification category to which the smallest number of traininginstances belong.

The term “majority class” refers to, for a training data set in whichthe classification categories are not approximately equally represented,the classification category to which the largest number of traininginstances belong.

The term “imbalanced training data set” refers to a training data set inwhich the classification categories are not approximately equallyrepresented. For example, the majority class having at least twice asmany training instances as the minority class.

The term “entropy” refers to the lack of predictability in a traininglabel or corresponding training instance. A higher entropy indicatesthat the data classification system is more uncertain about which classto assign the training instance to than a lower entropy indicates.

The term “synthetic training instance” refers to a training instancethat is not in an initial training data set but is generated frommultiple training instances that are in the initial training data set.

In the following discussion, an example environment is described thatmay employ the techniques described herein. Example procedures are alsodescribed which may be performed in the example environment as well asother environments. Consequently, performance of the example proceduresis not limited to the example environment and the example environment isnot limited to performance of the example procedures.

Example Environment

FIG. 1 is an illustration of a digital medium environment 100 in anexample implementation that is operable to employ the entropy basedsynthetic data generation for augmenting classification system trainingdata described herein. The illustrated environment 100 includes acomputing device 102, which may be configured in a variety of ways. Thecomputing device 102, for instance, may be configured as a desktopcomputer, a server computer, a laptop computer, a mobile device (e.g.,assuming a handheld configuration such as a tablet or mobile phone), awearable device (e.g., augmented reality or virtual reality headsets),and so forth. Thus, the computing device 102 may range from fullresource devices with substantial memory and processor resources (e.g.,personal computers, game consoles) to a low-resource device with limitedmemory and/or processing resources (e.g., mobile devices). Additionally,although a single computing device 102 is shown, the computing device102 may be representative of a plurality of different devices, such asmultiple servers utilized by a business to perform operations “over thecloud” as described in FIG. 5.

The computing device 102 is illustrated as including a data augmentationsystem 104, a training system 106, and a classification system 108, eachof which is implemented at least partially in hardware of the computingdevice 102. The computing device 102 receives input data 110 and theclassification system 108 generates and outputs a classification result112. The classification result 112 is an identification of one or moreclasses to which the input data 110 belongs.

In one or more implementations, the classification system 108 is amachine learning system. Machine learning systems refer to a computerrepresentation that can be tuned (e.g., trained) based on inputs toapproximate unknown functions. In particular, machine learning systemscan include a system that utilizes algorithms to learn from, and makepredictions on, known data by analyzing the known data to learn togenerate outputs that reflect patterns and attributes of the known data.For instance, a machine learning system can include decision trees,support vector machines, linear regression, logistic regression,Bayesian networks, random forest learning, dimensionality reductionalgorithms, boosting algorithms, artificial neural networks, deeplearning, and so forth.

For example, the classification system 108 can employ one or moreconvolutional neural networks (CNNs). A CNN is formed from layers ofnodes (i.e., neurons) and can include various layers such as an inputlayer, an output layer, and one or more hidden layers such asconvolutional layers, pooling layers, activation layers, fully connectedlayers, normalization layers, and so forth.

The training system 106 trains the classification system 108 to generateclassification results 112 for input data 110 using training data set114 that is maintained in storage 116. The storage 116 can be any of avariety of different types of storage, such as random access memory(RAM), Flash memory, solid state drive, magnetic disk drive, and soforth. Initially, the training system 106 trains the classificationsystem 108 by applying an initial set of training data 118 and adjustingweights within the classification system 108 based on the initial set oftraining data 118. The data augmentation system 104 generates a set ofsynthetic training data 120, after which the training system 106re-trains the classification system 108 by applying both the initial setof training data 118 and the synthetic training data set 120, andadjusting weights within the classification system 108 based on both theinitial set of training data 118 and the synthetic training data set120.

Each training instance in the training data set 114, as well as theinput data 110, is a vector having one or more elements each of which isa number. Each vector can represent any of a variety of different data,such as images, text and other characters, audio, and so forth.Non-number data can be converted to a vector of numbers using any of avariety of public or proprietary techniques, such as a word to vectortechnique, a document to vector technique, and so forth.

The data augmentation system 104 processes and transforms digitalcontent maintained in storage 116. Such processing includes creation,based on the initial training data 118, of digital content that is thesynthetic training data set 120. Although illustrated as implementedlocally at the computing device 102, one or more of the dataaugmentation system 104, the training system 106, and the classificationsystem 108 may also be implemented in whole or part via functionalityavailable via a network 122, such as part of a web service or “in thecloud.”

It should be noted that although the computing device 102 is illustratedas including the data augmentation system 104 and the training system106, in one or more implementations a computing device need not includeone or both of the data augmentation system 104 and the training system106. Once the classification system 108 is trained, the dataaugmentation system 104 and the training system 106 are not needed.

In general, functionality, features, and concepts described in relationto the examples above and below may be employed in the context of theexample systems and procedures described herein. Further, functionality,features, and concepts described in relation to different figures andexamples in this document may be interchanged among one another and arenot limited to implementation in the context of a particular figure orprocedure. Moreover, blocks associated with different representativeprocedures and corresponding figures herein may be applied togetherand/or combined in different ways. Thus, individual functionality,features, and concepts described in relation to different exampleenvironments, devices, components, figures, and procedures herein may beused in any suitable combinations and are not limited to the particularcombinations represented by the enumerated examples in this description.

Data Augmentation System Architecture

FIG. 2 is an illustration of an example architecture of a dataaugmentation system 104. The data augmentation system 104 includes anentropy determination module 202, an instance sampling module 204, acombination ratio determination module 206, and a synthetic traininginstance generation module 208. The data augmentation system 104generates synthetic training instances that the training system 106 usesto train the classification system 108 as discussed in more detailbelow.

The training system 106 trains 210 the classification system 108 byapplying the training data set 114 to the classification system 108 andadjusting weights within the classification system 108 based on thetraining data set 114. The training data set 114 includes training datain the form of tuples, each tuple including a training instance (thetraining data to be classified) and a corresponding training label. Thetraining label refers to a probability vector indicating, for each ofmultiple classes, the probability that the training data is in thatclass. For example, if there are two classes then a training label of[0,1] indicates a 0% chance of the corresponding training data being inthe first class and a 100% chance of the corresponding training databeing in the second class.

The classification system 108 is trained, for example, by updatingweights of filters in the classification system 108 (e.g., afully-convolutional neural network) to minimize a loss between the label212 generated by the classification system 108 for a training instancein the training data set 114 and the training label corresponding to thetraining instance. Any of a variety of different loss functions can beminimized, such as the cross-entropy loss function.

Initially, the training data set 114 includes just the initial trainingdata set 118. After initially training the classification system 108,the data augmentation system 104 generates synthetic training data set120, which is included in the training data set 114. The training system106 re-trains 210 the classification system 108 by applying the trainingdata set 114 (including both the initial training data set 118 and thesynthetic training data set 120) to the classification system 108 andadjusting weights within the classification system 108 based on thetraining data set 114.

The initial training data set 118 is an imbalanced training data set,which refers to the classification categories not being approximatelyequally represented. An imbalanced training data set refers to atraining data set that has, for example, at least twice as many traininginstances in the majority class as are in the minority class. The dataaugmentation system 104 generates synthetic training instances toaccount for this imbalance and better train the classification system108.

After the classification system 108 is initially trained, at least twoinstances (typically all instances or a subset of the training instancesset aside for verification) of the training data set 114 are input tothe classification system 108. The classification system 108 generates alabel 212 for each instance of the training data set 114 that theclassification system 108 receives. This generated label 212, asdiscussed above, is a probability vector indicating, for each ofmultiple classes, the probability that the training instance is in thatclass. These generated labels 212 are provided to the data augmentationsystem 104. It should be noted the labels 212 are labels generated bythe classification system 108 rather than the training labels from thetraining data set 114.

The training data set 114 is also provided to the data augmentationsystem 104. Accordingly, for each label 212 generated by theclassification system 108, the data augmentation system 104 also has thecorresponding training data. For example, the training instances in thetraining data set 114 can be provided to the data augmentation system104 in the same order as the instances are provided to theclassification system 108, allowing data augmentation system 104 to knowwhich label 212 corresponds to which training instance of the trainingdata set 114.

The entropy determination module 202 generates the entropy 214 for eachlabel 212 and corresponding training instance. The entropy for a label212 or the corresponding training instance refers to the lack ofpredictability in the corresponding training instance. A higher entropyindicates that the classification system 108 is more uncertain aboutwhich class to assign the corresponding training instance to than alower entropy indicates. In one or more implementations, the entropydetermination module 202 generates the entropy E as:E=Σ{right arrow over (p)}*log {right arrow over (p)}where {right arrow over (p)} refers to a probability vector (the label212). Accordingly, the entropy E of an instance is the sum of the valuep_(i)*log p_(i) for each element p_(i) in the probability vector {rightarrow over (p)} that includes i elements.

The entropy determination module 202 provides the generated entropies214 to the instance sampling module 204. In one or more implementations,the classification system 108 classifies data into one of two classes.The training data set 114 includes instances in both the minority classand the majority class. The class to which the majority of instancesbelongs is referred to as the majority class, and the class to which theminority of instances belongs is referred to as the minority class.

The instance sampling module 204 samples (also referred to as selects)two instances from the training data set 114, one instance from theminority class and one instance from the majority class, based on theentropies 214. The instance sampling module 204 can sample each instancein a variety of different manners.

In one or more implementations, the instance sampling module 204 employsa strategy favoring sampling of instances with lower entropies. In thisstrategy, the probability of sampling a particular instance from themajority class or the minority class is inversely proportional to theentropy of the instance. In such implementations both the instancesampled from the majority class and the instance sampled from theminority class typically have low entropy. The specific instance from aclass that is sampled can be identified in a variety of differentmanners.

For example, the instance sampling module 204 samples an instance from aclass having a lowest entropy that has not already been sampled. Ifmultiple instances have the same lowest entropy then one of thosemultiple instances can be selected according to various rules orcriteria (e.g., randomly or pseudorandomly).

By way of another example, the instance sampling module 204 obtains acount of how many synthetic training data instances are being generatedby the data augmentation system 104. The instance sampling module 204can select a set of instances from a class equal to that count that havethe lowest entropies. The instance sampling module 204 can then samplean instance from that set of instances that has not already been sampledaccording to various rules or criteria (e.g., randomly orpseudorandomly).

By way of yet another example, the instance sampling module 204 cangenerate a random or pseudorandom number as a probability value. Theinstance sampling module 204 can then select an instance from a classaccording to various rules or criteria (e.g., randomly orpseudorandomly). If the generated probability value exceeds the entropyof the selected instance, then the instance sampling module 204 samplesthat instance. If the generated probability value does not exceed theentropy of the selected instance, then the instance sampling module 204continues to select instances according to various rules or criteria(e.g., randomly or pseudorandomly) until an instance is selected forwhich the generated probability value does exceed the entropy of theinstance.

FIG. 3 illustrates examples of selecting instances of a class. In anexample 302, two classes are illustrated as portions 304 and 306. Forexample, portion 304 can be the minority class and portion 306 can bethe majority class. The entropies of multiple instances in each classare illustrated as circles. Entropy values are shown along thehorizontal axis. A decision boundary 308 is also illustrated—the furtheran entropy is from the decision boundary 308 the lower the entropy (andthus the lower uncertainty that the classification system 108 has aboutwhich class to assign the corresponding data to). Entropies of instancesthat are sampled by the instance sampling module 204 are shown in black(filled in circles) while instances that are not sampled by the instancesampling module 204 are shown in white (empty in circles). Asillustrated the two instances that are sampled, one from each class,have low entropy. The example 302 is an example of the strategy favoringsampling of instances with lower entropies.

Returning to FIG. 2, in one or more implementations, the instancesampling module 204 employs a strategy favoring sampling of instanceswith higher entropies. In this strategy, the probability of sampling aparticular instance from the majority class or the minority class isdirectly proportional to the entropy of the instance. In suchimplementations both the instance sampled from the majority class andthe instance sampled from the minority class typically have highentropy. The specific instance from a class that is sampled can beidentified in a variety of different manners.

For example, the instance sampling module 204 samples an instance from aclass having a highest entropy that has not already been sampled. Ifmultiple instances have the same highest entropy then one of thosemultiple instances can be selected according to various rules orcriteria (e.g., randomly or pseudorandomly).

By way of another example, the instance sampling module 204 obtains acount of how many synthetic training data instances are being generatedby the data augmentation system 104. The instance sampling module 204can select a set of instances from a class equal to that count that havethe highest entropies. The instance sampling module 204 can then samplean instance from that set of instances that has not already been sampledaccording to various rules or criteria (e.g., randomly orpseudorandomly).

By way of yet another example, the instance sampling module 204 cangenerate a random or pseudorandom number as a probability value. Theinstance sampling module 204 can then select an instance from a classaccording to various rules or criteria (e.g., randomly orpseudorandomly). If the generated probability value does not exceed theentropy of the selected instance, then the instance sampling module 204samples that instance. If the generated probability value does exceedthe entropy of the selected instance, then the instance sampling module204 continues to select instances according to various rules or criteria(e.g., randomly or pseudorandomly) until an instance is selected forwhich the generated probability value does not exceed the entropy of theinstance.

Returning to FIG. 3, an example 310 illustrates two classes as portions304 and 306, a decision boundary 308, and the entropies of multipleinstances in each class are illustrated as circles, analogous to example302 discussed above. The example 310 differs from the example 302 inthat the two instances that are sampled, one from each class, have highentropy. The example 310 is an example of the strategy favoring samplingof instances with lower entropies.

Returning to FIG. 2, in one or more implementations, the instancesampling module 204 employs a strategy favoring sampling one instancewith higher entropy and one instance with lower entropy. In thisstrategy, the probability of sampling a particular instance from oneclass is directly proportional to the entropy of the instance (andtypically has high entropy) and the probability of sampling a particularinstance from the other class is inversely proportional to the entropyof the instance (and typically has low entropy). Which of the minorityclass and the majority class has a probability of sampling a particularinstance that is directly proportional to the entropy of the instanceand which has a probability of sampling a particular instance that isinversely proportional to the entropy of the instance can be selectedaccording to various rules or criteria (e.g., randomly orpseudorandomly).

Which of the minority class and the majority class has a probability ofsampling a particular instance that is directly proportional to theentropy of the instance and which has a probability of sampling aparticular instance that is inversely proportional to the entropy of theinstance can be selected for each instance of synthetic training databeing generated, or alternatively for multiple instances of synthetictraining data being generated (e.g., until the classification system 108is re-trained as discussed in more detail below). In one or moreimplementations, which of the minority class and the majority class hasa probability of sampling a particular instance that is directlyproportional to the entropy of the instance and which has a probabilityof sampling a particular instance that is inversely proportional to theentropy of the instance is selected randomly or pseudorandomly for eachinstance of synthetic training data being generated.

The specific instance sampled from the class that has a probability ofsampling a particular instance that is directly proportional to theentropy of the instance can be identified in a variety of differentmanners, such as any of the manners discussed above regarding thestrategy favoring sampling of instances with higher entropies. Thespecific instance sampled from the class that has a probability ofsampling a particular instance that is inversely proportional to theentropy of the instance can be identified in a variety of differentmanners, such as any of the manners discussed above regarding thestrategy favoring sampling of instances with lower entropies.

Returning to FIG. 3, an example 320 illustrates two classes as portions304 and 306, a decision boundary 308, and the entropies of multipleinstances in each class are illustrated as circles, analogous to example302 discussed above. The example 310 differs from the example 302 inthat the instance sampled from class 304 has high entropy and theinstance sampled from class 306 has low entropy. The example 320 is anexample of the strategy favoring sampling one instance with higherentropy and one instance with lower entropy.

Returning to FIG. 2, the instance sampling module 204 provides the twosampled instances 216 to the synthetic training instance generationmodule 208. In addition, the combination ratio determination module 206generates a combination ratio 218 that indicates to the synthetictraining instance generation module 208 how to combine the sampledinstances 216 to generate the synthetic training instance 220, asdiscussed in more detail below. The combination ratio 218 controls theextent of overlap between the two sampled instances 216 in generatingthe synthetic training instance 220. In one or more implementations, thecombination ratio determination module 206 generates the combinationratio 218 by sampling the combination ratio 218 from a continuousprobability distribution. The combination ratio can be sampled fromvarious different probability distributions, such as a uniformdistribution, a beta distribution (e.g., with an alpha parameter of 0.2and a beta parameter of 0.2), a Poisson distribution (e.g., with aparameter in the range of 0.4 to 0.6), and so forth. These probabilitydistributions can be linear or non-linear probability density functions.

The synthetic training instance generation module 208 generates asynthetic training instance 220 by combining the sampled instances 216based on the combination ratio 218. In one or more implementations, thesynthetic training instance generation module 208 generates thesynthetic training instance 220 ({tilde over (X)}) and a synthetictraining label 222 ({tilde over (Y)}) as a linear transform, generatedas follows:{tilde over (X)}=λX ₁+(1−λ)X ₂{tilde over (Y)}=[λ,1−λ]where λ refers to the combination ratio 218, {tilde over (Y)} refers tothe synthetic training label 222 being generated, {tilde over (X)}refers to the synthetic training instance 220 being generated, X₁ refersto the sampled instance 216 from one class, and X₂ refers to the sampledinstance 216 from the other class. If {tilde over (X)} is a vector withmultiple elements, the value of each element is generated asλX₁+(1−λ)X₂. Which of the minority class and the majority class includesthe sampled instance X₁ and which includes the sampled instance X₂ canbe selected according to various rules or criteria (e.g., randomly orpseudorandomly). Which of the minority class and the majority classincludes the sampled instance X₁ and which includes the sampled instanceX₂ can be selected for each synthetic training instance 220 beinggenerated, or alternatively for multiple instances of synthetic traininginstances 220 being generated (e.g., until the classification system 108is re-trained as discussed in more detail below).

As an example of the linear transform, assume that X₁=[1, 2, 3] andX₂=[4, 5, 6], and λ=0.4. So:λX ₁=0.4*[1,2,3]=[0.4,0.8,1.2](1=λ)X ₂=(1−0.4)*[4,5,6]=[2.4,3.0,3.6]

Accordingly, {tilde over (X)}=[0.4, 0.8, 1.2]+[2.4, 3.0, 3.6]=[2.8, 3.8,4.8]. The training label corresponding to {tilde over (X)} is {tildeover (Y)}=[λ, 1−λ]=[0.4, 0.6].

Additionally or alternatively, the synthetic training instancegeneration module 208 generates the synthetic training instance 220 indifferent manners, such as generating the synthetic training instance220 as a non-linear transform. In such situations, the synthetictraining instance generation module 208 generates the synthetic traininginstance 220 ({tilde over (X)}) and the synthetic training label 222({tilde over (Y)}) as follows:

${\overset{˜}{X} = \frac{{p\left( {X_{1} - \mu_{1}} \right)} + {\left( {1 - p} \right)\left( {X_{2} - \mu_{2}} \right)}}{\sqrt{p^{2} + \left( {1 - p} \right)^{2}}}}{p = \frac{1}{1 + {\frac{\sigma_{1}}{\sigma_{2}} \cdot \frac{1 - \lambda}{\lambda}}}}$$\overset{˜}{Y} = \left\lbrack {\lambda,{1 - \lambda}} \right\rbrack$where λ refers to the combination ratio 218, {tilde over (Y)} refers tothe synthetic training label 222 being generated, {tilde over (X)}refers to the synthetic training instance 220 being generated, X₁ refersto the sampled instance 216 from a first class, X₂ refers to the sampledinstance 216 from a second class, μ₁ refers to the mean of data valuesin the first class, μ₂ refers to the mean of data values in the secondclass, σ₁ refers to the standard deviation of data values in the firstclass, and σ₂ refers to the standard deviation of data values in thesecond class. If {tilde over (X)} is a vector with multiple elements,the value of each element is generated using these equations (with X₁and X₂ representing each element). Which of the minority class and themajority class includes the sampled instance X₁ and which includes thesampled instance X₂ can be selected according to various rules orcriteria (e.g., randomly or pseudorandomly). Which of the minority classand the majority class includes the sampled instance X₁ and whichincludes the sampled instance X₂ can be selected for each synthetictraining instance 220 being generated, or alternatively for multipleinstances of synthetic training instances 220 being generated (e.g.,until the classification system 108 is re-trained as discussed in moredetail below).

In the examples above, the training label Y is discussed as beinggenerated as {tilde over (Y)}=[λ, 1−λ], referred to as a weighted crossentropy technique. Additionally or alternatively, the training label{tilde over (Y)} is generated in other manners, such as using a one-hotlabel cross entropy technique as follows:{tilde over (Y)}=[0,1],λ<0.5{tilde over (Y)}=[1,0],λ≥0.5where [0,1] refers to the label of the minority class and [1,0] refersto the label of the majority class.

Regardless of the manner in which the synthetic training instancegeneration module 208 generates the synthetic training instance 220 andthe corresponding synthetic training label 222, the synthetic traininginstance generation module 208 generates the synthetic training instance220 and the synthetic training label 222 as a tuple including thesynthetic training data {tilde over (X)} and the corresponding synthetictraining data label {tilde over (Y)}. The synthetic training instancegeneration module 208 adds this synthetic training instance 220 to thesynthetic training data set 120.

This process is repeated for multiple additional labels 212, resultingin multiple synthetic training instances 220 being generated andmultiple new tuples being added to the synthetic training data set 120.In one or more implementations, different training instances are sampledfor each synthetic training instance 220, thus resulting in thesynthetic training instances 220 being generated from a first collectionof training instances (e.g., from the minority class) and a secondcollection of training instances (e.g., from the majority class).Additionally or alternatively, the same training instance can be sampledand used to generate multiple synthetic training instances 220.

The number of synthetic training instances 220 being generated can bedetermined in a variety of different manners. For example, the number ofsynthetic training instances 220 can be a percentage of the number oflabels 212 generated (e.g., 20% or 25%). By way of another example, thenumber of synthetic training instances 220 can be a fixed amount, suchas 1,000. This percentage or fixed amount can be selected to allow for asignificant number of synthetic training instances 220 to be generatedwhile still keeping with the strategies (e.g., favoring sampling ofinstances with lower entropies, favoring sampling of instances withhigher entropies, favoring sampling one instance with higher entropy andone instance with lower entropy) discussed above.

The synthetic training data 120 is added to the training data set 114,so the training data set 114 becomes an augmented training data set. Thetraining system 106 re-trains 210 the classification system 108 byapplying the training data set 114 to the classification system 108 andadjusting weights within the classification system 108 based on thetraining data set 114. In re-training the classification system 108 thetraining data set 114 includes both the initial training data set 118and the synthetic training data set 120. Accordingly, the classificationsystem 108 is re-trained on both the initial training data set 118 andthe synthetic training data 120.

Additionally or alternatively, the training data set 114 can include thesynthetic training data set 120 but not the initial training data set118. In such situations, the classification system 108 is re-trained onjust the synthetic training data 120. The classification system 108 canoptionally be then re-trained again using the initial training data set118, followed by generation of a new synthetic training data set 120 andagain re-training of the classification system 108 on the new synthetictraining data set 120.

This process of generating synthetic training instances 220 andre-training the classification system 108 can be repeated any number oftimes. In one or more implementations, this process is repeated a fixednumber of times (e.g., 5 or 10 times). This fixed number can bedetermined empirically so as to allow the classification system 108 tobe well-trained but not over-trained. Additionally or alternatively,this process is repeated until a particular condition is satisfied, suchas selected individual weights in the classification system 108converging.

In one or more implementations, each time new synthetic traininginstances are generated after the classification system 108 isre-trained, the new synthetic training instances are added to theaugmented training data set. Accordingly, the augmented training dataset includes the synthetic training instances generated after eachre-training of the classification system. Additionally or alternatively,after one or more re-trainings of the classification system 108 the newsynthetic training instances are added to a version of the training dataset 114 that includes only the initial training data set 118.Accordingly, the augmented training data set includes the most recentlygenerated synthetic training instances but does not include previouslygenerated synthetic training instances (synthetic training instancesgenerated prior to the most recent re-training of the classificationsystem 108).

In the discussions above, reference is made to a classification system108 that classifies input data 110 into one of two different classes. Itshould be noted, however, that the techniques discussed herein can applyanalogously to a classification system that classifies input data 110into three or more classes. In such situations, synthetic traininginstances and corresponding synthetic training labels are generated asdiscussed above for two of the classes but with the labels (probabilityvectors) for the sampled training instances having or being set tovalues of 0 for all elements but those corresponding to the two classes.For the elements corresponding to those two classes, the labels havevalues that add up to 1. For example, one-hot encoding is used. If thelabels are not already in one-hot encoding then the labels are convertedto one-hot encoding (e.g., of the elements in the two labelscorresponding to the two classes in the pairing, the larger is changedto 1 and the smaller is changed to 0).

In situations in which the classification system 108 classifies theinput data 110 into three or more classes there are multiplepermutations of two classes from each training instance. For example, ifthere are 3 classes then there are 3 possible pairings of two classes,if there are 4 classes then there are 6 possible pairings of twoclasses, if there are 5 classes then there are 10 possible pairings oftwo classes, and so forth. A synthetic training instance and synthetictraining label can be generated from each possible pairings of twoclasses or only those pairings for which the two classes are imbalanced(the two classes are not approximately equally represented).

For example, assume that the classification system 108 classifies theinput data 110 into four classes. The classification system 108 selectsa pairing of the four classes, such as the first class and the thirdclass. Two training instances are sampled in any of the mannersdiscussed above.

The synthetic training instance generation module 208 generates thesynthetic training instance 220 ({tilde over (X)}) as discussed aboveusing a linear transform or a non-linear transform. For example, thesynthetic training instance 220 ({tilde over (X)}) is generated usingone of the following:

${\overset{˜}{X} = {{\lambda X_{1}} + {\left( {1 - \lambda} \right)X_{2}}}}{\overset{˜}{X} = \frac{{p\left( {X_{1} - \mu_{1}} \right)} + {\left( {1 - p} \right)\left( {X_{2} - \mu_{2}} \right)}}{\sqrt{p^{2} + \left( {1 - p} \right)^{2}}}}$

The synthetic training instance generation module 208 generates thesynthetic training label 222 ({tilde over (Y)}) as follows:{tilde over (Y)}=λY ₁+(1−λ)Y ₂where {tilde over (Y)} refers to the synthetic training label 222 beinggenerated, Y₁ refers to the training label corresponding to the sampledinstance 216 from the first class in the pairing, and Y₂ refers to thetraining label corresponding to the sampled instance 216 from the secondclass in the pairing.

For example, assume that the combination ratio 218 is four (λ=0.4), thatY₁=[1, 0, 0, 0] and Y₂=[0, 0, 1, 0]. Accordingly, the synthetic traininglabel 222 is {tilde over (Y)}=0.4*[1, 0, 0, 0]+(1+0.4)*[0, 0, 1,0]=[0.4, 0, 0.6, 0].

By way of another example, assume that the code repository 218 is four(λ=0.4), that Y₁=[0.3, 0.3, 0.2, 0.2] and Y₂=[0.25, 0.4, 0.25, 0.1] and.The elements of Y₁ corresponding to the two classes that are not in thepairing (the second and fourth classes in this example) are set to 0,and the values corresponding to the two classes that are in the pairing(the first and third classes) are converted to one-hot encoding.Accordingly, Y₁ is changed to Y₁=[1, 0, 0, 0] (because 0.3 is largerthan 0.25) and Y₂ is changed to Y₂=[0, 0, 1, 0] (because 0.25 is largerthan 0.2). Thus, the synthetic training label 222 is {tilde over(Y)}=0.4*[1, 0, 0, 0]+(1−0.4)*[0, 0, 1, 0]=[0.4, 0, 0.6, 0].

Example Procedures

The following discussion describes techniques that may be implementedutilizing the previously described systems and devices. Aspects of theprocedure may be implemented in hardware, firmware, software, or acombination thereof. The procedure is shown as a set of blocks thatspecify operations performed by one or more devices and are notnecessarily limited to the orders shown for performing the operations bythe respective blocks. In portions of the following discussion,reference will be made to FIGS. 1-4.

FIG. 4 is a flow diagram depicting a procedure in an example 400implementation of entropy based synthetic data generation for augmentingclassification system training data. In this example, a training dataset including multiple training instances is obtained (block 402). Eachtraining instance includes training data and has a correspondingtraining label. A first subset of the multiple training instances is ina minority class and a second subset of the multiple training instancesis in a majority class.

A data classification system is trained by applying the training dataset to the data classification system and adjusting weights within thedata classification system based on the training data set (block 404).The data classification system is initially trained on an initialtraining data set.

For each of at least two of the multiple training instances, an entropyof the training instance is determined (block 406). The entropy refersto the lack of predictability in the training instance. A higher entropyindicates that the data classification system is more uncertain aboutwhich class to assign the training instance to than a lower entropyindicates.

A first training instance from the first subset and a second traininginstance from the second subset are selected based on the entropies ofthe training instances (block 408). These training instances can beselected according to various strategies as discussed above, such asselecting at least two of the multiple training instances with lowentropies, selecting at least two of the multiple training instanceswith high entropies, and selecting at least one of the multiple traininginstances with a low entropy and at least one of the multiple traininginstances with a high entropy.

A synthetic training instance is generated by combining the firsttraining instance and the second training instance (block 410). Thefirst training instance and the second training instance can be combinedin various manners as discussed above, such as with a linear transformor a non-linear transform.

A synthetic training label for the synthetic training instance isgenerated based on a training label for the first training instance anda training label for the second training instance (block 412). Thesynthetic training label can be generated in various manners asdiscussed above, such as with a weighted cross entropy technique or aone-hot label cross entropy technique.

The training data set is augmented with a tuple including the synthetictraining instance and the synthetic training label, resulting in anaugmented training data set (block 414).

The data classification system is re-trained by applying the augmentedtraining data set to the data classification system and adjustingweights within the data classification system based on the augmentedtraining (block 416). In one or more implementations, the dataclassification system is re-trained by applying both the augmentedtraining data set and the initial training data set to the dataclassification system and adjusting weights within the dataclassification system based on both the augmented training data set andthe initial training data set.

Example System and Device

FIG. 5 illustrates an example system generally at 500 that includes anexample computing device 502 that is representative of one or morecomputing systems and/or devices that may implement the varioustechniques described herein. This is illustrated through inclusion ofthe segment targeting system 102. The computing device 502 may be, forexample, a server of a service provider, a device associated with aclient (e.g., a client device), an on-chip system, and/or any othersuitable computing device or computing system.

The example computing device 502 as illustrated includes a processingsystem 504, one or more computer-readable media 506, and one or more I/Ointerface 508 that are communicatively coupled, one to another. Althoughnot shown, the computing device 502 may further include a system bus orother data and command transfer system that couples the variouscomponents, one to another. A system bus can include any one orcombination of different bus structures, such as a memory bus or memorycontroller, a peripheral bus, a universal serial bus, and/or a processoror local bus that utilizes any of a variety of bus architectures. Avariety of other examples are also contemplated, such as control anddata lines.

The processing system 504 is representative of functionality to performone or more operations using hardware. Accordingly, the processingsystem 504 is illustrated as including hardware element 510 that may beconfigured as processors, functional blocks, and so forth. This mayinclude implementation in hardware as an application specific integratedcircuit or other logic device formed using one or more semiconductors.The hardware elements 510 are not limited by the materials from whichthey are formed or the processing mechanisms employed therein. Forexample, processors may be comprised of semiconductor(s) and/ortransistors (e.g., electronic integrated circuits (ICs)). In such acontext, processor-executable instructions may beelectronically-executable instructions.

The computer-readable storage media 506 is illustrated as includingmemory/storage 512. The memory/storage 512 represents memory/storagecapacity associated with one or more computer-readable media. Thememory/storage component 512 may include volatile media (such as randomaccess memory (RAM)) and/or nonvolatile media (such as read only memory(ROM), Flash memory, optical disks, magnetic disks, and so forth). Thememory/storage component 512 may include fixed media (e.g., RAM, ROM, afixed hard drive, and so on) as well as removable media (e.g., Flashmemory, a removable hard drive, an optical disc, and so forth). Thecomputer-readable media 506 may be configured in a variety of other waysas further described below.

Input/output interface(s) 508 are representative of functionality toallow a user to enter commands and information to computing device 502,and also allow information to be presented to the user and/or othercomponents or devices using various input/output devices. Examples ofinput devices include a keyboard, a cursor control device (e.g., amouse), a microphone, a scanner, touch functionality (e.g., capacitiveor other sensors that are configured to detect physical touch), a camera(e.g., which may employ visible or non-visible wavelengths such asinfrared frequencies to recognize movement as gestures that do notinvolve touch), and so forth. Examples of output devices include adisplay device (e.g., a monitor or projector), speakers, a printer, anetwork card, tactile-response device, and so forth. Thus, the computingdevice 502 may be configured in a variety of ways as further describedbelow to support user interaction.

Various techniques may be described herein in the general context ofsoftware, hardware elements, or program modules. Generally, such modulesinclude routines, programs, objects, elements, components, datastructures, and so forth that perform particular tasks or implementparticular abstract data types. The terms “module,” “functionality,” and“component” as used herein generally represent software, firmware,hardware, or a combination thereof. The features of the techniquesdescribed herein are platform-independent, meaning that the techniquesmay be implemented on a variety of commercial computing platforms havinga variety of processors.

An implementation of the described modules and techniques may be storedon or transmitted across some form of computer-readable media. Thecomputer-readable media may include a variety of media that may beaccessed by the computing device 502. By way of example, and notlimitation, computer-readable media may include “computer-readablestorage media” and “computer-readable signal media.”

“Computer-readable storage media” refers to media and/or devices thatenable persistent and/or non-transitory storage of information incontrast to mere signal transmission, carrier waves, or signals per se.Computer-readable storage media is non-signal bearing media. Thecomputer-readable storage media includes hardware such as volatile andnon-volatile, removable and non-removable media and/or storage devicesimplemented in a method or technology suitable for storage ofinformation such as computer readable instructions, data structures,program modules, logic elements/circuits, or other data. Examples ofcomputer-readable storage media may include, but are not limited to,RAM, ROM, EEPROM, flash memory or other memory technology, CD-ROM,digital versatile disks (DVD) or other optical storage, hard disks,magnetic cassettes, magnetic tape, magnetic disk storage or othermagnetic storage devices, or other storage device, tangible media, orarticle of manufacture suitable to store the desired information andwhich may be accessed by a computer.

“Computer-readable signal media” refers to a signal-bearing medium thatis configured to transmit instructions to the hardware of the computingdevice 502, such as via a network. Signal media typically may embodycomputer readable instructions, data structures, program modules, orother data in a modulated data signal, such as carrier waves, datasignals, or other transport mechanism. Signal media also include anyinformation delivery media. The term “modulated data signal” means asignal that has one or more of its characteristics set or changed insuch a manner as to encode information in the signal. By way of example,and not limitation, communication media include wired media such as awired network or direct-wired connection, and wireless media such asacoustic, RF, infrared, and other wireless media.

As previously described, hardware elements 510 and computer-readablemedia 506 are representative of modules, programmable device logicand/or fixed device logic implemented in a hardware form that may beemployed in some implementations to implement at least some aspects ofthe techniques described herein, such as to perform one or moreinstructions. Hardware may include components of an integrated circuitor on-chip system, an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), afield-programmable gate array (FPGA), a complex programmable logicdevice (CPLD), and other implementations in silicon or other hardware.In this context, hardware may operate as a processing device thatperforms program tasks defined by instructions and/or logic embodied bythe hardware as well as a hardware utilized to store instructions forexecution, e.g., the computer-readable storage media describedpreviously.

Combinations of the foregoing may also be employed to implement varioustechniques described herein. Accordingly, software, hardware, orexecutable modules may be implemented as one or more instructions and/orlogic embodied on some form of computer-readable storage media and/or byone or more hardware elements 510. The computing device 502 may beconfigured to implement particular instructions and/or functionscorresponding to the software and/or hardware modules. Accordingly,implementation of a module that is executable by the computing device502 as software may be achieved at least partially in hardware, e.g.,through use of computer-readable storage media and/or hardware elements510 of the processing system 504. The instructions and/or functions maybe executable/operable by one or more articles of manufacture (forexample, one or more computing devices 502 and/or processing systems504) to implement techniques, modules, and examples described herein.

The techniques described herein may be supported by variousconfigurations of the computing device 502 and are not limited to thespecific examples of the techniques described herein. This functionalitymay also be implemented all or in part through use of a distributedsystem, such as over a “cloud” 514 via a platform 516 as describedbelow.

The cloud 514 includes and/or is representative of a platform 516 forresources 518. The platform 516 abstracts underlying functionality ofhardware (e.g., servers) and software resources of the cloud 514. Theresources 518 may include applications and/or data that can be utilizedwhile computer processing is executed on servers that are remote fromthe computing device 502. Resources 518 can also include servicesprovided over the Internet and/or through a subscriber network, such asa cellular or Wi-Fi network.

The platform 516 may abstract resources and functions to connect thecomputing device 502 with other computing devices. The platform 516 mayalso serve to abstract scaling of resources to provide a correspondinglevel of scale to encountered demand for the resources 518 that areimplemented via the platform 516. Accordingly, in an interconnecteddevice embodiment, implementation of functionality described herein maybe distributed throughout the system 500. For example, the functionalitymay be implemented in part on the computing device 502 as well as viathe platform 516 that abstracts the functionality of the cloud 514.

CONCLUSION

Although the invention has been described in language specific tostructural features and/or methodological acts, it is to be understoodthat the invention defined in the appended claims is not necessarilylimited to the specific features or acts described. Rather, the specificfeatures and acts are disclosed as example forms of implementing theclaimed invention.

What is claimed is:
 1. In a training data generation digital mediumenvironment, a method comprising: obtaining a training data setincluding multiple training instances, each training instance comprisingtraining data and having a corresponding training label, a first subsetof the multiple training instances being in a minority class and asecond subset of the multiple training instances being in a majorityclass; training a data classification system by applying the trainingdata set to the data classification system and adjusting weights withinthe data classification system based on the training data set;determining, for each of at least two of the multiple traininginstances, an entropy of the training instance; selecting, based on theentropies of the training instances, a first training instance from thefirst subset and a second training instance from the second subset;generating a synthetic training instance by combining the first traininginstance and the second training instance; generating a synthetictraining label for the synthetic training instance based on a traininglabel for the first training instance and a training label for thesecond training instance; augmenting the training data set with a tupleincluding the synthetic training instance and the synthetic traininglabel, resulting in an augmented training data set; and re-training thedata classification system by applying the augmented training data setto the data classification system and adjusting weights within the dataclassification system based on the augmented training data set.
 2. Themethod as recited in claim 1, the selecting comprising selecting, as theat least two of the multiple training instances, at least two of themultiple training instances with low entropies.
 3. The method as recitedin claim 1, the selecting comprising selecting, as the at least two ofthe multiple training instances, at least two of the multiple traininginstances with high entropies.
 4. The method as recited in claim 1, theselecting comprising selecting, as the at least two of the multipletraining instances, at least one of the multiple training instances witha low entropy and at least one of the multiple training instances with ahigh entropy.
 5. The method as recited in claim 1, the first traininginstance comprising a first vector including multiple elements, thesecond training instance comprising a second vector including multipleelements, and the combining the first training instance and the secondtraining instance comprising adding a product of the first vector and acombination ratio to a product of the second vector and one minus thecombination ratio.
 6. The method as recited in claim 1, the combiningthe first training instance and the second training instance comprisingperforming a non-linear transformation on the first training instanceand the second training instance.
 7. The method as recited in claim 1,the augmenting the training data set with the tuple comprising addingthe tuple to the training data set.
 8. The method as recited in claim 1,further comprising repeating the determining, the selecting, thegenerating the synthetic training instance, and the generating thesynthetic training label multiple times to augment the training data setwith multiple tuples.
 9. The method as recited in claim 8, the selectingcomprising: selecting, as the at least two of the multiple traininginstances for generating a first synthetic training instance, a firsttraining instance from the first subset with a low entropy and a secondtraining instance from the second subset with a high entropy; andselecting, as the at least two of the multiple training instances forgenerating a second synthetic training instance, a third traininginstance from the second subset with a low entropy and a fourth traininginstance from the first subset with a high entropy.
 10. In a trainingdata generation digital medium environment, a computing devicecomprising: a processor; and computer-readable storage media havingstored thereon multiple instructions that, responsive to execution bythe processor, cause the processor to perform operations including:obtaining an imbalanced training data set having a minority class and amajority class, the imbalanced training data set including multipletraining instances each of which includes training data and has acorresponding training label, a first subset of the multiple traininginstances belonging to the minority class and a second subset of themultiple training instances belonging to the majority class; training adata classification system on the imbalanced training data set;determining, for each of at least two of the multiple traininginstances, an entropy of the training instance; selecting, based on theentropies of the training instances, a first training instance from thefirst subset and a second training instance from the second subset;generating a synthetic training instance by combining the first traininginstance and the second training instance; generating a synthetictraining label for the synthetic training instance based on a traininglabel for the first training instance and a training label for thesecond training instance; adding a tuple to the training data set, thetuple including the synthetic training instance and the synthetictraining label, resulting in an augmented training data set; andre-training the data classification system by applying the augmentedtraining data set to the data classification system and adjustingweights within the data classification system based on the augmentedtraining data set.
 11. The computing device as recited in claim 10, theselecting comprising selecting, as the at least two of the multipletraining instances, at least two of the multiple training instances withlow entropies.
 12. The computing device as recited in claim 10, theselecting comprising selecting, as the at least two of the multipletraining instances, at least two of the multiple training instances withhigh entropies.
 13. The computing device as recited in claim 10, theselecting comprising selecting, as the at least two of the multipletraining instances, at least one of the multiple training instances witha low entropy and at least one of the multiple training instances with ahigh entropy.
 14. The computing device as recited in claim 10, the firsttraining instance comprising a first vector including multiple elements,the second training instance comprising a second vector includingmultiple elements, and the combining the first training instance and thesecond training instance comprising adding a product of the first vectorand a combination ratio to a product of the second vector and one minusthe combination ratio.
 15. The computing device as recited in claim 10,the operations further comprising repeating the determining, theselecting, the generating the synthetic training instance, thegenerating the synthetic training label, and the adding multiple timesto augment the training data set with multiple tuples.
 16. The computingdevice as recited in claim 15, the selecting comprising: selecting, asthe at least two of the multiple training instances for generating afirst synthetic training instance, a first training instance from thefirst subset with a low entropy and a second training instance from thesecond subset with a high entropy; and selecting, as the at least two ofthe multiple training instances for generating a second synthetictraining instance, a third training instance from the second subset witha low entropy and a fourth training instance from the first subset witha high entropy.
 17. A system comprising: a classification system,implemented at least in part in hardware, to receive input data,classify the input data, and output a label indicating a classificationof the input data; a training system, implemented at least in part inhardware, to train the classification system on an initial training dataset including multiple training instances, each training instancecomprising training data and having a corresponding training label, afirst subset of the multiple training instances being in a minorityclass and a second subset of the multiple training instances being in amajority class; means for generating, based on entropies of a firstcollection of training instances from the first subset and entropies ofa second collection of training instances from the second subset, asynthetic training data set including multiple synthetic traininginstances to augment the initial training data set; and the trainingsystem being further to re-train the classification system on theinitial training data set and the augmented training data set.
 18. Thesystem as recited in claim 17, the means for generating furtherincluding means for selecting, as the first collection of traininginstances and the second collection of training instances, traininginstances with low entropies.
 19. The system as recited in claim 17, themeans for generating further including means for selecting, as the firstcollection of training instances and the second collection of traininginstances, training instances with high entropies.
 20. The system asrecited in claim 17, the means for generating further including meansfor selecting, as the first collection of training instances, traininginstances with low entropies and selecting, as the second collection oftraining instances, training instances with high entropies.